Kings and Chronicles Class 12 History Exam Questions

Question. Explain the position of Jesuits at the Mughal court
Answer :
1. The Jesuit accounts are the earliest impressions of the Mughal court ever recorded by European writers.
2. By the end of the fifteenth century, Portuguese merchants established a network of trading stations in coastal cities.
3. The Portuguese king was also interested in the propagation of Christianity with the help of the missionaries of the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits).
4. Akbar was curious about Christianity and dispatched an embassy to Goa to invite Jesuit priests.
5. The first Jesuit mission reached the Mughal court at Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 and stayed for about two years.
6. The Jesuits debated its virtues with the ulama.
7. Two more missions were sent to the Mughal court at Lahore, in 1591 and 1595.
8. At public assemblies the Jesuits were assigned places in close proximity to Akbar’s throne.
9. They also accompanied him on his campaigns and were often companions of his leisure hours.

Question. Discuss the major features of Mughal provincial administration. How did the centre control the provinces?
Answer :
1 The head of the provincial administration was the governor (subadar) who reported directly to the emperor.
2. Each suba was divided into sarkars often with the jurisdiction of faujdars (commandants)
3. The local administration was looked after at the level of the pargana (sub-district) by three semi–hereditary officers, the qaungo (keeper of revenue records), the chaudhuri (in charge of revenue collection), and the Qazi.
4. Each department of administration maintained a large support staff of clerks, accountants, auditors, messengers, and other functionaries who were technically qualified officials.
5. Persian was made the language of administration throughout, but local languages were used for village accounts.
6. Emperor and his court as controlling the entire administrative apparatus and down to the village level.
7. Sometimes marked by conflicts over authority and a share of the resources.
8. The zamindars often succeeded in mobilizing peasant support against the state.

Question. Discuss the merits and demerits of the Mansabdari Sytem.
Answer :
Merits
1. Control on revolts.
2. Qualification as basis of ranks.
3. Ban on Corruption
4. Forceful army 5. Emotional unity
Demerits
1. Misuse of money
2. Disloyalty of the soldiers towards the empire
3. Luxurious life of mansabdars
4. The high salary of mansabdars created pressure on govt.
5. Less number of horsemen than the prescribed number affected the effectiveness of the military.
6. Lack of direct link between emperor and soldiers

Question. Describe the making of manuscripts during Mughal period.
Answer :
1. All books in Mughal India were manuscripts.
2. The centre of manuscript production was the imperial kitabkhana.
3. It was a place where the emperor’s collection of manuscripts was kept and new manuscripts were produced.
4The creation of a manuscript involved a variety of tasks.
5. Papermakers were needed to prepare the folios of the manuscript.
6. Scribes or calligraphers to copy the text, gilders to illuminate the pages, painters to illustrate scenes from the text, bookbinders to gather the individual folios and set them within ornamental covers.
7. The finished manuscript was seen as a precious object, a work of intellectual wealth and beauty.
8. Some of the people involved in the actual production of the manuscript got titles and awards.
9. Calligraphers and painters held a high social standing.
10. Akbar’s favourite was the nastaliq, a fluid style with long horizontal strokes.

Question. Who were the Mughals? How Mughal Empire was founded?
Answer :
The name Mughal derives from Mongol. Though today the term evokes the grandeur of an empire, it was not the name that the rulers of the dynasty chose for themselves. They referred to themselves as Timurids, as descendants of the Turkish ruler Timur on the paternal side.
Babur, the first Mughal ruler, was related to Ghenghiz Khan from his mother’s side.
During the sixteenth century, Europeans used the term Mughal to describe the Indian rulers of this branch of the family.
The empire was carved out of a number of regional states of India through conquests and political alliances between the Mughals and local chieftains.
The founder of the empire, Zahiruddin Babur, was driven from his Central Asian homeland, Farghana, by the warring Uzbeks. He first established himself
at Kabul and then in 1526 cptured Delhi.

Nasiruddin Humayun
His successor, Nasiruddin Humayun (1530-40, 1555-56) expanded the frontiers of the empire, but lost it to the Afghan leader Sher Shah Sur, who drove him into exile. Humayun took refuge in the court of the Safavid ruler of Iran. In 1555 Humayun defeated the Surs, but died a year later.

Jalaluddin Akbar
Many consider Jamaluddin Akbar (1556-1605) the greatest of all the Mughal emperors. He consolidated his empire, by making it the largest, strongest and richest kingdom of his time.
Akbar had three fairly able successors in Jahangir (1605-27), Shah Jahan (1628-58) and Aurangzeb (1658-1707), much as their characters varied. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the institutions of an imperial structure were created. These included effective methods of administration and taxation.

The court
The centre of Mughal power was the court. The political system devised by the Mughals was based on a combination of military power and conscious policy to accommodate the different traditions in the subcontinent.

Decline of Mughal power
After 1707, following the death of Aurangzeb, the power of the dynasty diminished. Regional powers acquired greater autonomy. But the prestige of the Mughal ruler did not lose. In 1857 the last ruler of this dynasty, Bahadur Shah Zafar II, was overthrown by the British.

Question. Describe the making of manuscripts during Mughal period.
Answer :
*All books in Mughal India were manuscripts.
*The centre of manuscript production was the imperial kitabkhana.
*It was a place where the emperor’s collection of manuscripts was kept and new manuscripts were produced
*The creation of a manuscript involved a variety of tasks.
*Paper makers were needed to prepare the folios of the manuscript, scribes or calligraphers to copy the text, gilders to illuminate the pages, painters to illustrate scenes from the text, bookbinders to gather the individual folios and set them within ornamental covers.
*The finished manuscript was seen as a precious object, a work of intellectual wealth and beauty.
*It exemplified the power of its patron, the Mughal emperor, to bring such beauty into being.
*Some people involved in the actual production of the manuscript also got recognition in the form of titles and awards.
*Calligraphers and painters held a high social standing.
*Calligraphy, the art of handwriting, was considered a skill of great importance. It was practiced by using different styles.
*Akbar’s favourite was the nastaliq, a fluid style with long horizontal strokes. It is written using a piece of trimmed reed with a tip of five to 10 mm called qalam, dipped in carbon ink (siyahi). The nib of the qalam is usually split in the middle to facilitate the absorption of ink.

Question. In what ways do you think the production of books today is similar to or different from the ways in which Mughal chronicles were produced? Describe the importance of Painting in the Mughal period
Answer :
1. Painters were also involved in the production of Mughal manuscripts.
2. Chronicles narrating the events of a Mughal empire contained images that described an event in visual form.
3. When scenes or themes in a book were to be given visual expression, paintings, executed separately by artists.
4. Miniatures paintings were also be used around for viewing and mounting on the pages of manuscripts.
5. Paintings served not only to enhance the beauty of a book, but were believed to possess special powers of communicating ideas about the kingdom.
6. The historian Abu’l Fazl described the painting as a “magical art”: in his view, it had the power to make inanimate objects look as if they possessed life

Question. Why Paintings were the source of tension among the rulers and the Muslim Orthodoxy? [HW]
Answer :
*The production of paintings portraying the emperor, his court was a source of constant tension between rulers and representatives of the Muslim orthodoxy, the Ulama.
* Islam prohibits the portrayal of human beings enshrined in the Qur’an as well as the hadis, which described an incident from the life of the Prophet Muhammad.
*Here the Prophet is cited as having forbidden the depiction of living beings in a naturalistic manner as it would suggest that the artist was seeking to appropriate the power of creation.

Question. Why did Abu’l Fazl consider the art of painting important? How did he seek to legitimize this art?
Answer :
1. Abu’l Fazl held the art of painting in high esteem:
2. Drawing the likeness of anything is called taswir.
3. His Majesty from his earliest youth, has shown great praise for this art and gives it every encouragement. He looks upon it as a means both of study and amusement.
4. A very large number of painters have been set to work.
5. Each week, several supervisors and clerks of the imperial workshop submit before the emperor the work done by each artist and His Majesty gives a reward and increases the monthly salaries of the artists according to the excellence displayed.
6. The minuteness in detail, the general finish, and the boldness of execution now observed in pictures are incomparable and even inanimate objects look as if they have life.
7. More than a hundred painters have become famous masters of art.
8. This is especially true of Hindu artists.
9. Their pictures surpass our conception of things.

Patronizing Arts
Muslim rulers in many Asian regions commissioned artists to paint their portraits and scenes of life in their kingdoms. The Safavid kings of Iran, for example, patronised the finest artists, who were trained in workshops set up at court.
Artists from Iran also made their way to Mughal India.

Question. Briefly narrate the Akbar Nama and the Badshah Nama
Answer :
Among the important illustrated Mughal chronicles, the Akbar Nama and Badshah Nama (The Chronicle of a King) are the most well-known.
Each manuscript contained an average of 150 full- or double-page paintings of battles, sieges, hunts, building construction, court scenes, etc.

Akbar Nama
The author of the Akbar Nama, Abu’l Fazl grew up in the Mughal capital of Agra. He was widely read in Arabic, Persian, Greek philosophy, and Sufism. He was a forceful debater and independent thinker who opposed the views of the conservative ulama. These qualities impressed Akbar, who found Abu’l Fazl ideally suited as an adviser and a spokesperson for his policies. One major objective of the emperor was to free the state from the control of religious orthodoxy. In his role as court historian, Abu’l Fazl both shaped and articulated the ideas associated with the reign of Akbar.
Beginning in 1589, Abu’l Fazl worked on the Akbar Nama for thirteen years, repeatedly revising the draft. The Akbar Nama is divided into three books of which the first two are chronicles. The third book is the Ain-i Akbari. The first volume contains the history of mankind from Adam to one celestial cycle of Akbar’s life (30 years). The second volume closes in the forty-sixth regnal year (1601) of Akbar. The very next year Abu’l Fazl fell victim to a conspiracy hatched by Prince Salim and was murdered by, Bir Singh Bundela.

Description of Akbar’s reign
* The Akbar Nama was written to provide a detailed description of Akbar’s reign in its geographic, social, administrative, and cultural fields.
*In the Ain-i Akbari the Mughal Empire is presented as having a diverse population consisting of Hindus, Jainas, Buddhists, and Muslims and a composite culture.
*Abu’l Fazl wrote in a language that was ornate (richly adorned) and which attached importance to diction and rhythm, as texts were often read aloud.
This Indo-Persian style was patronized at court, and there were a large number of writers who wanted to write like Abu’l Fazl.
Badshah Nama about Emperor Shah Jahan by Abdul Hamid Lahori
a. A pupil of Abu’l Fazl, Abdul Hamid Lahori is known as the author of the Badshah Nama.
b. Emperor Shah Jahan, hearing of his talents, commissioned him to write a history of his reign modelled on the Akbar Nama.
c. The Badshah Nama is his official history in three volumes (daftars) of ten lunar years each.
d. Lahori wrote the first and second daftars comprising the first two decades of the emperor’s rule (1627-47); these volumes were later revised by Sadullah Khan, Shahjahan’s wazir. The old-age prevented Lahori from proceeding with the third decade which was then chronicled by the historian Waris.
e. During the colonial period, British administrators began to study Indian history and to create an archive of knowledge about India.
f. The Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded by Sir William Jones in 1784, undertook the editing, printing, and translation of many Indian manuscripts.
g. They published the edited Akbar Nama and Badshah Nama.
h. In the early twentieth century the Akbar Nama was translated into English by Henry Beveridge. Only excerpts of the Badshah Nama have been translated into English to date.

Question. Explain how the concept of Divine Right Theory inspired the Mughal rules
Answer :
a. Divine Right Theory: Court chroniclers drew upon many sources to show that the power of the Mughal kings came directly from God.
b.One of the legends they narrated was that of Queen Alanqua, a Mongol queen Alanqua, who was impregnated by a ray of sunshine while resting in her tent. The offspring she bore carried this Divine Light and passed it on from generation to generation.
c.Abu’l Fazl placed Mughal kingship as the highest state in the hierarchy of objects receiving light emanating from God (farr-i izadi ). He was inspired by a famous Iranian sufi, Shihabuddin
Suhrawardi (d. 1191) who first developed this idea. According to this idea, there was a hierarchy in which the Divine Light was transmitted to the king who then became the source of spiritual guidance for his subjects.
d. Paintings of the chronicles transmitted these ideas in a way that left a lasting impression on the minds of viewers.
e.Mughal artists, from the seventeenth century onwards, began to portray emperors wearing the halo,(circle of light) which they saw on European paintings of Christ and the Virgin Mary to symbolize the light of God.

Question.The Mughal Empire was having different ethnic and religious communities. Explain.
Answer :
a. Mughal chronicles present the empire as comprising many different ethnic and religious communities – Hindus, Jainas, Zoroastrians and Muslims.
b. As the source of all peace and stability, the emperor stood above all religious and ethnic groups, mediated among them, and ensured that justice and peace prevailed.
c. Abu’l Fazl describes the ideal of sulh-i kul (absolute peace) as the cornerstone of enlightened rule.
d.In sulh-i kul all religions and schools of thought had freedom of expression but on condition that they did not undermine the authority of the state or fight among themselves.The ideal of sulh-i kul was implemented through state policies. The nobility under the Mughals was a composite one comprising Iranis, Turanis, Afghans, Rajputs, Deccanis –positions and awards given on the basis of their service and loyalty to the king.
e. Further, Akbar abolished the tax on pilgrimage in 1563 and jizya in 1564 as the two were based on religious discrimination. Instructions were sent to officers of the empire to follow the precept of sulh-i kul in administration.
f. All Mughal emperors gave grants for the maintenance of places of worship. Even when temples were destroyed during the war, grants were later issued for their repair – as we know from the reigns of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.
During the reign of Aurangzeb, the jizya was re-imposed.

Question.Explain how court procedure was followed during Mughal period?
Answer :
1. The physical arrangement of the court, focused on the sovereign, mirrored(reflected) his status as the heart of society. Its centerpiece was therefore the throne, the takht, which gave physical form to the function of the sovereign as axis mundi.
2. Chronicles lay down with great precision the rules defining status amongst the Mughal elites.
In court, status was determined by spatial proximity to the king. The place accorded to a courtier by the ruler was a sign of his importance in the eyes of the emperor.
Once the emperor sat on the throne, no one was permitted to move from his position or to leave without permission.
3. Social control in court society was exercised through carefully defining in full detail the forms of address, courtesies, and speech which were acceptable in court. The slightest infringement of etiquette was noticed and punished on the spot.
4. The forms of salutation to the ruler indicated the person’s status in the hierarchy: deeper prostration represented higher status. The highest form of submission was sijda or complete prostration. Under Shah Jahan, these rituals were replaced with chahar taslim and zaminbos (kissing the ground).
5. The protocols governing diplomatic envoys at the Mughal court were equally explicit. An ambassador presented to the Mughal emperor was expected to offer an acceptable form of greeting – either by bowing deeply or kissing the ground, or else to follow the Persian custom of clasping one’s hands in front of the chest.
6. Thomas Roe, the English envoy of James I, simply bowed before Jahangir according to European custom and further shocked the court by demanding a chair.
7. The emperor began his day at sunrise with personal religious devotions or prayers, and then appeared on a small balcony, the jharoka, facing the east. Below, a crowd of people (soldiers, merchants, craftspersons, peasants, women with sick children) waited for a view, darshan, of the emperor. Jharoka darshan was introduced by Akbar with the objective of broadening the acceptance of the imperial authority as part of popular faith.
8.Chahar taslim is a mode of salutation which begins with placing the back of the right hand on the ground, and raising it gently till the person stands erect, when he puts the palm of his hand upon the crown of his head. It is done four (chahar) times. Taslimliterally means submission.
9. After spending an hour at the jharoka, the emperor walked to the public hall of audience (diwan-i am) to conduct the primary business of his government. State officials presented reports and made requests.
10. Two hours later, the emperor was in the diwan-i khas to hold private audiences and discuss confidential matters. High ministers of state placed their petitions before him and tax officials presented their accounts.
11. Occasionally, the emperor viewed the works of highly reputed artists or building plans of architects (mimar).
12. On special occasions such as the anniversary of accession to the throne, Id, Shab-i barat and Holi, the court was full of life. Perfumed candles set in rich holders and palace walls festooned with colourful hangings made a tremendous impression on visitors.
13. The Mughal kings celebrated three major festivals a year: the solar and lunar birthdays of the monarch and Nauroz, the Iranian New Year. On his birthdays, the monarch was weighed against various commodities which were then distributed in charity.
Titles and gifts
*Grand titles were adopted by the Mughal emperors at the time of coronation or after a victory over an enemy.
*Mughal coins carried the full title of the reigning emperor.
*The granting of titles to men of merit was an important aspect of Mughal polity.
*A man’s ascent in the court hierarchy could be traced through the titles he held.
*The title Mirza Raja was accorded by Aurangzeb to his two highest-ranking nobles, Jai Singh and Jaswant Singh.
*Titles could be earned or paid for. Mir Khan offered Rs one lakh to Aurangzeb for the letter alif, that is A, to be added to his name to make it Amir Khan.
*Other awards included the robe of honour (khilat), a garment once worn by the emperor and imbued with his benediction.
*The lotus blossom set with jewels (padma murassa) was given only in exceptional circumstances.
*A courtier never approached the emperor empty-handed: he offered either a small sum of money (nazr ) or a large amount (peshkash).
*In diplomatic relations, gifts were regarded as a sign of honour and respect.
*Ambassadors performed the important function of negotiating treaties. In such a context gifts had an important symbolic role.
*Thomas Roe was disappointed when a ring he had presented to Asaf Khan was returned to him for the reason that it was worth merely 400 rupees.

Question. The Imperial Household (wives of Mughal Kings and the Role of royal women) [HW]
Answer :
* The term “harem” is frequently used to refer to the domestic world of the Mughals. It originates in the Persian word haram, meaning a sacred place.
The Mughal household consisted of the emperor’s wives and concubines, his near and distant relatives (mother, step- and foster-mothers, sisters, daughters, daughters-in-law, aunts, children, etc.), and female servants and slaves.
*Marriages: Polygamy was practiced widely in the Indian subcontinent, especially among the
ruling groups. Both for the Rajput clans as well as the Mughals marriage was a way of cementing political relationships and forging alliances. The gift of territory was often accompanied by the gift of a daughter in marriage. This ensured a continuing hierarchical relationship between ruling groups. It was through the link of marriage and the relationships that the Mughals were able to form a vast kinship network that helped to hold a vast empire together.
*In the Mughal household a distinction was maintained between wives who came from royal families (begams), and other wives (aghas) who were not of noble birth.
The begams, married after receiving huge amounts of cash and valuables as dower (mahr), naturally received a higher status and greater attention from their husbands than did aghas.
The concubines (aghacha or the lesser agha) occupied the lowest position in the hierarchy of females intimately related to royalty.
They all received monthly allowances in cash, supplemented with gifts according to their status.
*Promotion of the wives
The lineage-based family structure was not entirely static. The agha and the aghacha could rise to the position of a begam depending on the husband’s will, and provided that he did not already have four wives. Love and motherhood played important roles in elevating such women to the status of legally wedded wives.
Apart from wives, numerous male and female slaves populated the Mughal household.
The tasks they performed varied from the most mundane to those requiring skill, tact, and intelligence.
*Slave eunuchs (khwajasara) moved between the external and internal life of the household as guards, servants, and also as agents for women dabbling in commerce.
Role of royal women [HW]
After Nur Jahan, Mughal queens and princesses began to control financial resources. Shah Jahan’s daughters enjoyed an annual income often equal to that mansabdars. They also received revenues from the port cities. Control over resources helped them to construct new buildings and gardens. The bazaar of Chandni Chowk was designed by Shajahan’s daughter. They sometimes wrote interesting books about court life. Some could write in Turkish and Persian.

Question. Why did Akbar show high respect towards the inter-faith debates? Give two reasons
Answer : Akbar and inter-faith debate i. Akbar’s Quest for religious knowledge ii. Wanted to acquire knowledge about religious doctrines iii. He was a divinely aspired individual iv. Any other relevant point Any two be mentioned 

Question. Describe the condition of agrarian women in the Mughal rural society.
Answer : i. They worked shoulder to shoulder in the fields.
ii. Men tilled and ploughed, while women sowed, weeded, threshed and winnowed the harvest.
iii. Artisanal tasks such as spinning yarn, sifting and kneading clay for pottery, and embroidery were among the many aspects of production dependent on female labour.
iv. They even went to the houses of their employers or to the markets if necessary.
v. They were child-bearers in a society dependent on labour.
vi. Marriages in many rural communities required the payment of brideprice rather than dowry to the bride’s family.
vii. Remarriage was considered legitimate.
viii. Women were kept under strict control by the family and the community
ix. Record petitions sent by women to the village panchayat, seeking redress and justice.
x. Wives protested against infidelity.
xi. women had the right to inherit property

Question. ‘The towns built by the Mughals were famous for their imperial grandeur and wealth.’ Support it with two features.
Answer : i. Agra, Delhi, and Lahore were important centres of imperial administration and control.
ii. Mansabdars and jagirdars who were assigned territories in different parts of the empire usually maintained houses in these cities.
iii. wide variety of services had to be provided
iv. Artisans produced exclusive handicrafts for the households of nobles. The grain from the countryside was brought into urban markets for the town dwellers and the army. 2X1=2
v. The treasury was also located in the imperial capital.
vi. Thus the revenues of the kingdom flowed into the capital regularly.
vii. The emperor lived in a fortified palace and the town was enclosed by a wall, with entry and exit being regulated by different gates.
viii. Within these towns were gardens, mosques, temples, tombs, colleges, bazaars, and caravanserais.
ix. The focus of the town was oriented towards the palace and the principal mosque.

Question. Analyse why the Sulh-i-kul policy of Akbar was considered as the cornerstone of enlightened rule? How chronicles were produced during Mughal era? Explain.
Answer : Sulh-i-kul policy of Akbar
i. His empire comprised of many different ethnic and religious communities –Hindus, Jainas, Zoroastrians and Muslims.
ii. As the source of all peace and stability the emperor stood above all religious and ethnic groups, mediated among them, and ensured that justice and peace.
iii. In sulh-i-kul all religions and schools of thought had freedom of expression.
iv. The ideal of sulh-i-kul was implemented through state policies.
v. The nobility under the Mughals was a composite one comprising Iranis, Turanis, Afghans, Rajputs, Deccanis, etc.
vi. Akbar abolished the tax on pilgrimage in 1563 and jizyain 1564 as the two were based on religious discrimination.
vii. Instructions were sent to officers of the empire to follow the precept of sulh-i-kul in administration.
viii. All Mughal emperors gave grants to support the building and maintenance of places of worship and maintenance.
ix. On Id, Shab-i-barat and Holi, the court was full of life.
x. The nobility was recruited from diverse ethnic and religious groups
xi. Akbar had marital alliances with various ethnic groups
xii. Members of Hindu castes inclined towards education and accountancy were also promoted, a famous example being Akbar’s finance minister, Raja TodarMal, who belonged to the Khatri caste
xiii. The high respect shown by Akbar towards the members of the Jesuit mission
xiv. Interfaith debates in the ibadatkhana at Fatehpur Sikri between learned Muslims, Hindus, Jainas, Parsis and Christians
xv. Akbar’s religious views matured as he queried scholars of different religions and sects and gathered knowledge about their doctrines.
xvi. He tried to understand religions towards a self-conceived eclectic form of divine worship focused on light and the sun.
xvii. He assimilated a heterogeneous populace within an imperial edifice Any four to be explained

Question. Analyse the importance and limitations of Ain –i-Akbari as a source of Akbar’s reign.
Answer : A. Importance
i. The Ain gives detailed accounts of the organization of the court, administration, and army, the sources of revenue and the physical layout of the provinces, and the literary, cultural, and religious traditions of the people.
ii. Along with a description of the various departments of Akbar’s government and elaborate descriptions of the various provinces (subas) of the empire
iii. The Ain gives us intricate quantitative information about those provinces.
iv. The Ain is therefore a mine of information for us about the Mughal Empire during Akbar’s reign.
v. The Ain is made up of five books (daftars), of which the first three books describe the administration.
vi. The first book, called manzil-abadi, concerns the Imperial Household and its maintenance.
vii. The second book, sipah-abadi, covers the military and civil administration and the establishment of servants.
viii. The third book, mulk-abadi, is the one which deals with the fiscal side Any four to be explained
B. limitations of Ain-i- Akbari
i. Numerous errors in tallying have been detected. These are ascribed to simple slips of arithmetic or of transcription by Abul Fazl’s assistants.
ii. Ain is the somewhat skewed nature of the quantitative data.
iii. Data were not collected uniformly from all provinces.
iv. For many subas detailed information was compiled about the caste composition of the zamindars such information is not available for Bengal and Orissa.
v. Vital parameters such as prices and wages from these areas are not as well documented except Agra.
v i. It has limited relevance for the rest of the country.

Question. Analyse the diplomatic and political relationship of the Mughals with the neighbouring empires.
Answer : The diplomatic and political relationship of the Mughals with the neighbouring empires.
i. Iran and Turan hinged on the control of the frontier defined by the Hindukush mountains that separated Afghanistan from the regions of Iran and Central Asia.
ii. A constant aim of Mughal policy was to ward off potential danger by controlling strategic outposts – notably Kabul and Qandahar.
iii. Qandahar was a bone of contention between the Safavids and the Mughals.
iv. The relationship between the Mughals and the Ottomans was marked by the concern to ensure free movement for merchants and pilgrims in the territories under Ottoman control. This was especially true for the Hijaz, that part of Ottoman Arabia where the important pilgrim centres of Mecca and Medina were located.
v. Akbar was curious about Christianity and dispatched an embassy to Goa to invite Jesuit priests. The first Jesuit mission reached the Mughal court at Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 and stayed for about two years.

Question. Analyse the reasons for the frequent shifting of the capital cities of the Mughals during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Answer : Reasons for the frequent shifting of the capital cities of the Mughals during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
i. Agra-the 1560s Akbar had the fort of Agra constructed with red sandstone quarried from the adjoining regions
ii. Fatehpur Sikri-One of the reasons prompting this may have been that Sikri was located on the direct road to Ajmer, where the dargah of Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti had become an important pilgrimage centre.
iii. Lahore – In 1585 the capital was transferred to Lahore to bring the northwest under greater control and Akbar closely watched the frontier for thirteen years.
iv. Shahjahanabad- It was a new addition to the old residential city of Delhi, with the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, a tree-lined esplanade with bazaars (Chandni Chowk) and spacious homes for the nobility. Shah Jahan’s new city was appropriate to a more formal vision of a grand monarchy.

Question. How did the village panchayat regulate the rural society in the Mughal period? Explain
Answer : The village panchayat regulated the rural society in the Mughal period in the following ways:
i. The village Panchayat was an assembly of elders of important people of the village. They had hereditary landed properties
, ii. The panchayat represented various castes and communities in the village but it was dominated by the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas
iii. The menial-cum-agricultural worker was unlikely to be represented.
iv. The Panchayat was headed by a headman known as muqaddam or mandal.
v. The headman was chosen by consensus by the village elders. This was ratified by the zamindar.
vi. The Headmen held office as long as they enjoyed the confidence of the village elders, failing which they could be dismissed by them.
vii. The chief function of the headman was to supervise the preparation of village accounts, assisted by the accountant or patwari.
viii. The mandals often misused their positions. For under assessing the revenue from their own lands and passing the burden to the smaller cultivator.
ix. The funds came from contributions made by individuals to a common pool.
x. This money was used for looking after the state revenue officials who visited the village, community welfare activities during natural calamities like floods, construction of a bund or digging a canal etc.
xi. The panchayat ensured that caste boundaries among the various communities of the village were upheld to prevent any offence against their caste. In eastern India all marriages were held in the presence of the mandal.
xii. Panchayats also had the authority to impose fines
xiii. It could give severe punishment like expulsion from the community. Thus forcing a person forced to leave the village and losing his right to practise his profession.
xiv. Each caste or jati in the village had its own jati panchayat with considerable power.
xv. In Rajasthan jati panchayats took care of civil disputes land marriages ritual precedence in village functions regarding members of different castes.
xvi. In most cases, except in matters of criminal justice, the state respected the decisions of jati Panchayats.
xvii. Petitions found in the records from Rajasthan and Maharashtra give evidence of morally illegitimate demands like excessive tax or beggar being made on villagers belonging to the lowest rungs of rural society by the elite groups.
xviii. The villagers regarded the village panchayat as the court of appeal that would ensure that the state carried out its moral obligations and guaranteed justice
xix. In absence of Justice, the cultivators could always desert the village. The availability of uncultivated land and the value of labour made this possible.

Question. How do we come to know about the rural society of the Mughal period? Which technologies were used by the peasants during this period? Explain
Answer : Different sources to know about the rural society during the Mughal period are as follows
i. Archaeological sources (monuments, houses, paintings, the material remains) tell us about Mughal society.
ii. All the Mughal chronicles like Badshah Nama tell us about Mughal society
iii. Ain-i Akbari, authored by Akbar’s court historian AbulFazl records the arrangements made by the state to ensure cultivation,collect revenue
iv. Ain tells us about how to regulate the relationship between the state and the zamindars.
v. Ain gives us the vision of Akbar’s empire vi. Ain tells us that social harmony was provided by a strong ruling class.
vii. It projected the idea that any revolt against the Mighty Mughals was bound to fail.
viii. Whatever we learn from the Ain is a view from the top.
ix. Revenue records from Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan dating from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries give us information.
x. The records of the East India Company provide useful descriptions of agrarian relations in eastern India.
xi. Accounts of Bernier on Mughal society Any other relevant point. The following technology was used by the peasants during this period.
i. Monsoons remained the backbone of Indian agriculture.
ii. Areas that received high rainfall were generally used for growing rice, followed by wheat and millets.
iii. Artificial systems of irrigation were used for crops that required additional water. Peasants used wells for irrigation.
iv. The state undertook digging of new canals (nahr, nala) and also repaired old ones like the shahnahr in the Punjab during ShahJahan’s reign.
v. Agriculture was labour intensive.
vi. Peasants also used cattle energy or animal power. vii. Iron tipped wooden plough, which was light and easily assembled was used in cultivation.
viii. A drill, pulled by a pair of giant oxen was used to plant seeds.
ix. Broadcasting of seed was the most prevalent method.
x. Hoeing and weeding were done with a khurpi
xi. Two major seasonal cycles of rabi and Kharif existed where rainfall or irrigation assured a continuous supply of water, some lands even gave three crops.
xii. Persian wheels were used

Question. How does the Ain-i-Akbari lay down the physical arrangements of the Mughal court? Explain
Answer : i. It focused on the sovereign status of the king as the heart of the society.
ii. His throne as the takhat gave physical form to the function of the sovereign as axis Mundi.
iii. The Canopy was believed to separate the radiance of the sun from that of the sovereign.
iv. In court, status was determined by spatial proximity to the king.
v. Once the emperor sat on the throne no one was permitted to move or leave without permission. vi. The slightest infringement of etiquette was noticed on the spot.
vii. Deeper prostration represented higher status (sijda).
viii. Either by bowing or kissing the ground. Any other relevant point.

Question. Explain the role of zamindars in the Mughal India during 16th -17th century.
Answer : i. Landed proprietors enjoyed social and economic privileges
ii. Elevated status as they performed khidmat
iii. Held extensive personal lands as milkiyat. They could sell, mortgage that land.
iv. Collect revenue on behalf of the state.
v. They controlled military resources also.
vi. Had fortresses and armed contingent.
vii. Were upper caste brahmans and had full control over village society.
viii. The dispossession of weaker people was a way of expanding zamindari. I
ix. Few lower caste also entered into zamindari
x. Rajputs and jats adopted various strategies to consolidate power in north India.
xi. Zamindars spearheaded the colonization of agricultural lands and helped in settling cultivators.
xii. The buying and selling of zamindari accelerated the process of monetization in the countryside xiii. In few cases zamindars came to be a exploitative class on peasantry section To be assessed as a whole

Question. Abul Fazl had shaped and articulated the ideas associated with the reign of Akbar‘s Substantiate the statement in the context Mughal court.
Answer : Mughal court
i. The physical arrangement of the court, focused on the sovereign, mirrored his status as the heart of society.
ii. The throne gave physical form to the function of the sovereign as axis mundi. iii. The canopy was believed to separate the radiance of the sun from that of the sovereign. iv. In court, status was determined by spatial proximity to the king. v. The place accorded to a courtier by the ruler was a sign of his importance in the eyes of the emperor. vi. Once the emperor sat on the throne, no one was permitted to move vii. After spending an hour at the jharoka, the emperor walked to the public hall of audience (diwan-i am) to conduct the primary business of his government. viii. State officials presented reports and made requests. ix. diwan-i khas to hold private audiences and discuss confidential matters. High ministers of state placed their petitions before him
x. Occasionally, the emperor viewed the works of highly reputed artists or building plans of architects
xi. Id, Shab-i barat and Holi, the court was full of life. Perfumed candles set in rich holders and palace walls

Question. Analyse the condition of forest dwellers in the Mughal agrarian society.
Answer : i. An average of 40 per cent of Mughal Empire was covered by forests
ii. Their livelihood came from the gathering of forest produce, hunting and shifting agriculture.
iii. Collection of livelihoods was largely season specific. Spring was reserved for collecting forest produce, summer for fishing, the monsoon months for cultivation, and autumn and winter for hunting.
iv. For the state, the forest was a place of rebels and troublemakers.
v. State required elephants for the army. Elephants were captured from forest and sold.
vi. Rulers went for regular hunting expeditions which enabled the emperor to travel across the extensive territories of his empire and personally attend to the grievances of its inhabitants.
vii. The spread of commercial agriculture was an important external factor that impinged on the lives of those who lived in the forests.
viii. Forest products –like honey, beeswax and gum lac – were in great demand. Some, such as gum lac, 8 209 became major items of overseas export from India in the seventeenth century.
ix. Social factors too brought changes in the lives of forest dwellers. Like the head men of the villages, tribes also had their chieftains. Many tribal chiefs had become zamindars, some even became kings.
x. Tribal Kings recruited people from their lineage groups or demanded that their fraternity provide military service. Tribes in the Sind region had armies comprising 6,000 cavalry and 7,000 infantries.