Notes And Questions for NCERT Class 10 Social Science The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Students can refer to Notes And Questions For NCERT Class 10 Social Science The Rise of Nationalism in Europe below designed as per the latest syllabus and examination patter for CBSE Class 10 Social Science

Facts that Matter

1. During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about sweeping changes in the political and mental world of Europe and resulted in emergence of the nation-state.

2. Frederic Sorrieu, a French artist, visualised his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and social Republics’, and presented it to the world and promoted the spirit of nationalism.

3. Ernst Renan, a French philosopher, gave the new definition of a nation.

4. The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789 in France.

5. The political and constitutional changes came to be seen. For example,
— Transfer of sovereignty from the monarchs to French citizens.
— A sense of collective identity amongst the French people was created through various measures and practices.

6. Napoleon incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient.

7. The Civil Code of 1804 usually known as the Napoleonic Code was introduced. Simplification of administrative divisions, improvement in transport and communication systems, removal of guild restrictions, standardisation of weights and measures and Introduction of common currency were major changes in the system. The right to property was also secured.

8. But increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe, outweighed the advantages of the administrative changes.

9. Nationalism and the idea of the nation-state were achieved. Common things were regional divisions, ownership of estates and town-houses. Industrialisation began in France and parts of the German states during the nineteenth century. New social groups came into being: a working-class population, and middle classes (industrialists, businessmen, professionals).

10. Slowly and steadily ideas of national unity among the educated, liberal middle classes gained popularity which led to the abolition of aristocratic privileges.

11. The ideology of liberalism emerged which ended the state interference in the economic life of society. Freedom of markets was achieved and state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital were abolished. Napoleon’s administrative measures were altered.

12. On 18 May 1848, in the Frankfurt Parliament, a constitution was drafted and freedom of the press and freedom of association were established.

13. Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire and Belgium gained independence from the Netherlands.

14. Giuseppe Mazzini formed Young Italy to establish a unitary Italian Republic.

15. Liberal middle classes emerged with the demands for constitutionalism with national unification.

16. In 1815, Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria collectively defeated Napoleon and to make a settlement the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 was signed. According to the provisions of this treaty, the Bourbon dynasty was restored to power, France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon and a series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future.

17. Belgium was set up in the north and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south. Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was given control of northern Italy. Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.

18. During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal-nationalists underground.

19. Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.

20. The Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari.

21. He subsequently founded two more underground societies—Young Italy in Marseilles, and Young Europe in Berne. The members of these societies were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and German States.

22. The period between 1830–1848 is symbolised with the age of revolutions. Revolution started in several regions of Europe such as the Italian and German states, the provinces of the Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland. The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries. Louis Philippe was made a constitutional monarch. Belgium got separated from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Greek war of independence started in 1821. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

23. Culture played a vital role in creating the idea of the nation through art and poetry, stories and music. It helped to express and arouse nationalist feelings.

24. The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe. The first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe which gave rise to unemployment. Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.

25. Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods from England, where industrialisation was more advanced than on the continent. This was especially so in textile production, which was carried out mainly in homes or small workshops and was only partly mechanised.

26. In those regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.

27. The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country.

28. Food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the roads.

29. As a result of all these developments, barricades were erected and Louis Philippe was forced to flee. A National Assembly proclaimed a republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21, and guaranteed the right to work.

30. Cotton weaving was the most widespread occupation. Still the economic conditions of the workers were miserable. There were very less jobs and they were underpaid. In hope of a positive change, on 4 June, 1845, a large crowd of weavers revolted against their contractor demanding higher wages. But they were treated harshly and forcefully sent back homes.

31. In the year 1848, a revolution led by the liberals (educated middle classes) also took place. They made demands for constitutionalism with national unification. In the German regions a large number of political associations came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly. A Constitution for a German nation was drafted which was to be headed by monarchy subject to a Parliament.

32. Germany was divided into many states. In 1848, the German confederation and Prussia began organising themselves into a German state.

33. Three wars—Danish War, Austro-Prussian War and Franco-Prussian War—were fought which ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification of Germany in 1871. The Prussian King Kaiser William I was proclaimed German Emperor.

34. Like Germany, Italy, too had a long history of political fragmentation. Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national Habsburg Empire.

35. During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. The unification process was led by three revolutionaries—Giuseppe Mazzini, Count Camillo de Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi.

36. Giuseppe Mazzini during the 1830s sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. He organised a new political society called Young Italy.

37. The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848 meant that the responsibility now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war.

38. Count de Cavour now led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.

39. Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers.

40. In 1861, the process of the unification of Italy completed and Victor Emmanuel-II was proclaimed king of the United Italy.

41. The history of nationalism in Britain was different from the rest of Europe. Before the eighteenth century there was no British nation. The people of different identities comprised of English, Welsh, Scot or Irish lived in the British Isles.

42. The Act of Union of 1707 between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’. This led to the demolition of Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions. Ireland was forcibly included into the United Kingdom in 1801.

43. This amalgamation led to the growth of a new, powerful nation—‘British nation’. The symbols of the new Britain—the British Flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English language—were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

44. Nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkans states. The Balkans consisted of regions of modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia- Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro and their inhabitants were broadly known as Slavs. A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.

45. When the Ottoman Empire collapsed, it initiated nationalism in the Balkans states. Gradually, its European subject-nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence.

46. In the race of expanding their territories and imposing their supremacy on each other, Slavic nationalities quickly got into severe clashes and the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.

47. It also became the scene of big power rivalry. This finally led to a series of wars in the region which culminated into the first world war that took place in 1914.

Flow-Learning

Words that Matter

1. Nation-state: The region in which the majority of its citizens, and not only its rulers, came to develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent.

2. Plebiscite: A direct vote which gave power to the people of a region to accept or reject a proposal.

3. Absolutist: A government or system of rule without restraints on the power exercised.

4. Utopian: An imaginary ideal society which principally doesn’t exist.

5. Suffrage: The right to vote.

6. Conservatism: A political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition, established institutions and customs, and preferred gradual development to quick change.

7. Feminist: Awareness of women’s rights and interests based on the belief of the social, political and economic equality of genders.

8. Ethnic: The people of different identities living together sharing common racial, tribal, or cultural origin or background.

9. Allegory: Expression of idea or thought through a person or a thing.

10. British nation: This amalgamation of different identities comprised of English, Welsh, Scot or Irish lived in the British Isles.

Dateline

1. 1714: George-I became the king of Great Britain.
2. 1715: Louis XV became the king of France.
3. 1740-1748: The War of the Austrian Succession.
4. 1756-1763: The Seven Years War.
5. 1776: The American Declaration of Independence.
6. 1789: The French Revolution occurred.
7. 1797: Napoleon invaded Italy; Napoleonic wars began.
8. 1814: The First Treaty of Paris: established a lenient peace with France.
9. 1814-1815: Fall of Napoleon; the Vienna Peace Settlement; Napoleon escaped from Elba, gathered a new army, but was defeated at Waterloo.
10. 1821: Greek struggle for independence began.
11. 1832: Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire.
12. 1831: Giuseppe Mazzini established Young Italy.
13. 1859-1861: The unification of Italy.
14. 1849-1878: The reign of Victor Emmanuel-II of Piedmont-Sardinia.
15. 1852: Camillo Cavour became the premier of Sardinia-Piedmont.
16. 1859: Piedmont and France defeated Austria; Piedmont annexed Lombardy.
17. 1861: The Kingdom of Italy was announced; Victor Emmanuel-II of Piedmont-Sardinia became king of Italy.
18. 1870: After France declared war on Prussia, Italy annexed Rome.
19. 1866-1871: The unification of Germany.
20. 1861-1888: Reign of King William-I of Prussia.
21. 1867: Prussia created the North German Confederation.
22. 1870-1871: Franco-Prussian War.
23. 1871: The German Empire was formed; Germany annexed Alsace and Lorraine.
24. 1848: The Revolutions of 1848.
25. 1905: Slav nationalism gathered force in the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires.

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED

Write in Brief

Question 1. Write a note on:
(a) Giuseppe Mazzini
(b) Count Camillo de Cavour
(c) The Greek war of independence
(d) Frankfurt parliament
(e) The role of women in nationalist struggles
Ans. (a) (i) Giuseppe Mazzini was born in Genoa on June 22nd, 1807 in a middle class family.
(ii) He was a patriot, Italian revolutionary, founder of Young Italy and an important figure in liberal nationalism.
(iii) He was one of the three revolutionaries who made a significant contribution in Italian unification. His efforts led to the unification of Italy.
(iv) In 1830, he joined the revolutionary Carbonari (a secret association with political purposes) for which he was arrested soon and put in jail.
(v) There he organised a new political society called Young Italy, whose basic principle was the union of the several states and kingdoms into one republic.
(vi) He founded underground societies like Young Italy in Marseilles, and Young Europe in Berne.
(vii) To evoke people’s reaction Mazzini wrote several essays that voiced the injustice to the working class such as the peasants, professionals, artists, and intellectuals.
(viii) He was elected as a member of a constituent assembly and acquired the responsibility of framing a constitution for the Roman Republic.

(b) Count Camillo de Cavour, a political leader and an Italian statesman, was born at Turin on the 1st of August 1810.
(i) At the age of ten he entered the military academy at Turin.
(ii) He was a significant figure in the movement towards Italian unification and the founder of the original Italian Liberal Party.
(iii) He founded the Agrarian Association in 1842 and the newspaper II Risorgimento in 1847, where he struggled to establish a constitutional monarchy.
(iv) Cavour was a liberal and had faith in free trade, public right of opinion and secular rule. So on becoming the prime minister of Piedmont- Sardinia on 4 November 1852 Cavour strengthened the kingdom, reformed taxation, stabilised the currency, and improved the railway system.
(v) In 1853, he supported the French and British in the Crimean War with troops, in anticipation to enhance the prestige of Piedmont-Sardinia.
(vi) On March 17, 1861 when Victor Emmanuel II became the king of Italy, Cavour was formally declared as the prime minister of Italy.
(vii) Count Camillo de Cavour made considerable efforts for the creation of a modern Italian state. But unfortunately he died only three months after the declaration of a United Italy on 6 June 1861.

(c) (i) Greece had been a part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.
(ii) The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence among the people of Greece. It began in 1821.
(iii) Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from several West Europeans who had soft corners for the ancient Greek culture.
(iv) Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilization and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against the Ottoman Empire.
(v) Finally, with the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 Greece became an independent nation.

(d) In 1848, Germany was a divided country with different provinces like Austria and Prussia. In February 1848, when a rebellion took place in Paris King Louis Philippe was forced to run away. This ultimately boosted the confidence of other countries also and revolts started throughout Europe. Many German cities were shaken by revolts of crowds. This led to the fall of the conservative governments and liberals called for the National Assembly. It was attended by 831 delegates from all over Germany in a church in Frankfurt on May 18, 1848. Friedrich Wilhelm IV was elected as the president but it turned out to be futile due to lack of experience of the deputies. Instead of setting up a central power in Germany, the deputies debated about the fundamental rights of the German people. However, the Assembly continued its work and completed a Constitution. Radical political groups in Germany tried to impose the Constitution through civil war, but were suppressed.

(e) (i) A large number of women participated actively in the political matters over the years.
(ii) They formed many political associations, founded newspapers and took part in political meetings and demonstrations.
(iii) This grabbed the attention of delegates of the Frankfurt parliament. So, on 18 May 1848, when the Constitution was drafted in the Frankfurt parliament the controversial issue of extending political rights to women was raised.
(iv) Still women were deprived of suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly and they were admitted in the Frankfurt parliament assembly only as spectators.
(v) But this did not diminish their contribution to the national struggle.
(vi) Delphine de Girardin, an educated woman, criticised by saying that if servants doing the household work were granted the right to vote then why not women who are mothers, housewives managing everything at home.

Question 2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people? 
                             Or
When did the first clear cut expression of nationalism come in France? How did the French Revolution lead to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens? Explain any four measures taken by the French revolutionaries. 
Ans. The first clear cut expression of nationalism came in France with the French Revolution. To make the Revolution a success it was very important to instill a sense of unity in every citizen. To achieve it, various measures and practices were followed:
(i) A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
(ii) The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
(iii) The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasised the nation of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
(iv) New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
(v) A centralised administrative system practising uniform laws for all citizens within its territory was set up.
(vi) Internal custom duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
(vii) Regional languages were discouraged and French was adopted as the common language of the nation.

Question 3. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?
Ans. In olden times the best way to present an idea was through symbolic personifications. This was the most common and appealing way to invite people’s attention. From 1789 females appeared in paintings as symbol of liberty and revolution. During the French Revolution, many symbolic personifications of ‘Liberty’ and ‘Reason’ appeared. Marianne was the female figure invented by artists in the nineteenth century to represent the French nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic—the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in public places to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.
Similarly, Germania became the symbol of the German nation. This work was done by the artist Philip Veit. He depicted Germania as a female figure standing against a background where beams of sunlight shone through the tricolour fabric of the national flag. Germania was wearing a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.

Question 4. Briefly trace the process of German unification.
                     Or
Examine the main features of the process of German unification under the leadership of Otto Von Bismarck.
Ans. German unification was a long and complicated process. At the beginning of the 19th century, Germany was not a unified country. It was a collection of autocratic states (39 in all), where only the very wealthy and powerful ruled. It was a difficult affair to unite Germany. It took a long time to unite Germany into one country and the credit goes to Bismarck. He fought three wars to unify Germany.
(i) Danish-Prussian War in 1864: The 1864 Danish War helped Bismarck strengthen his internal position in Prussia. Danish King Friedrich VII died in 1864. Many European royals were independent having undersized territories. Often these territories were divided by different laws, customs, and even languages. Without much effort, Prussia defeated Danish. The Danish War was the first step in the unification of Germany.
(ii) Austro-Prussian War in 1866: In 1866 relations between Austria and Prussia worsened over the control of Schleswig-Holstein. However, the real concern was to emerge as the dominant force in Germany. Bismarck provoked quarrels with the Austrians to gain supremacy in Germany. He tactfully secured Italian support and French neutrality. Prussian troops occupied Holstein and the “Seven Weeks War” broke out between Prussia and Austria. During the Seven Weeks War (1866) Austria was totally crushed by Prussian forces at the Battle of Sadowa, and was completely removed from any role in German affairs. An extraordinary lenient treaty “The Treaty of Prague” was signed to expel Austria from the German Confederation so that Austria did not remain an enemy of Prussia. Prussia was now able to dominate the other German states without fear of Austrian intervention.
(iii) North German Confederation in 1866: After defeating Austria, Bismarck organised the North German Confederation in 1866. It was composed of Prussia and 17 small northern German states. It contained all German states. North of the Main River was successfully controlled by Prussia. The remaining German states were eventually forced to join, including Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. Bismarck was now ready to take on France.
(iv) Franco-Prussian War in 1870-71: To complete German unification Bismarck had to deal with France. In 1870 Bismarck purposely created war with France. Bismarck suggested a German candidate’s name for the vacant Spanish throne. The hidden aim behind this move was to make the French emperor Napoleon III angry and declare war on Prussia and the North German Confederation. Prussia was completely victorious over France at the Battle of Sedan in 1870 and gained control over Alsace-Lorraine. For unification Bismarck followed ‘Blood and Iron’ policy. Thus, the long planned journey of German unification was completed in 1871 A.D.

Q5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him? 
Ans. Though Napoleon was a dictator and was against democracy but he took certain measures to smoothly and proficiently run the administrative system.
(i) Napoleon reformed the French legal system because the old feudal and royal laws were very confusing and conflicting to the people.
(ii) The Napoleonic Code of 1804 was a major step in establishing the rule of law. This Code was exported to the regions under French control.
(iii) In countries like the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy and Germany feudalism was abolished and peasants were freed from serfdom and manorial dues.
(iv) All privileges based on birth were taken away. The equality before the law was established and the right to property was secured.
(v) Transport and communication systems were also paid attention and were improved.
(vi) Low class people like peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen were given more freedom.
(vii) Uniform laws were adopted for all. Be it a businessman and a small-scale producer of goods—all began to realise that uniform laws, stadardised weights and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.

Discuss

Question 1. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?
Ans. The word ‘liberal’ is derived from the Latin ‘liber’ that means ‘free’. Liberalism means a political system or tendency opposed to centralisation and absolutism. It emphasises on absolute and unrestrained freedom of thought, religion, conscience, creed, speech, press, and politics. Liberals believed that government is necessary to protect individuals from being harmed by others, not to pose a threat to liberty.
In nineteenth century a series of republican revolts started against European monarchies. It began in Sicily and spread over to France, the German and Italian states, and the Austrian Empire. This was the time when the liberals became active. Their significant role in political and economic fields changed the outlook of European countries.
In the economic field
(i) Liberals in the 19th century urged the end of state interference in the economic life of society.
(ii) They fought for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
(iii) In 1834, a customs union or zolverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states.
(iv) The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from thirty to two.
(v) The construction of a network of railways stirred economic growth and economic nationalism which eventually strengthened nationalism.

In the political field
(i) Primary aim of liberals was to establish freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.
(ii) It believed that government should be formed with the consent of people.
(iii) It was against autocracy and clerical privileges and favoured a constitution and representative government through parliament.
(iv) During that time property-owning men only had right to vote and get elected.
(v) The Napoleonic Code also preferred limited suffrage and reduced women’s role also.
(vi) Women were considered as the subject to the authority of fathers and husbands.
(vii) This led to the rise of movement by women and non-propertied men demanding equal political rights.

Question 2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe. 
                      Or
How did Romanticism seek to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiments during 18th century? Explain.
                      Or
“Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation in Europe.” Support the statement with examples.
                      Or
How did culture play an important role in creating the idea of the ‘nation’ in Europe? Explain with examples.
Ans. (i) Culture played a vital role in creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories and music helped express and arouse nationalist feelings. Romantic artists and poets made deliberate efforts to create a sense of shared collective heritage, a common cultural past as the basis of a nation.
(ii) The German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder stated that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of nation was popularised. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the project of nation-building.
The French painter Delacroix depicted an incident through his painting in which 20,000 Greeks were assumed to have been killed by Turks. By dramatising the incident and focusing on the suffering of women and children Delacroix wanted to appeal to the emotions of the spectators and create sympathy for the Greeks.
Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
(iii) Language played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. Regional languages had always been an obstacle in the unification of a country. To overcome it, a common national language was adopted. The Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was made obligatory everywhere.
(iv) In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place but it was crushed. After the failure of this rebellion, members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish became a common language in church gatherings and all religious instruction. As a result, several priests and bishops were put in jail by the Russian authorities as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

Question 3. Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century?
Ans. Refer NCERT Textbook Q4. Write in Brief; (The process of German unification)
Refer NCERT Textbook Q1. Write in Brief; (c) (The Greek War of Independence)
Refer NCERT Textbook Q1. Write in Brief; (a) Guiseppe Mazzini and (b) Count
Camillo de Cavour (For unification of Italy)

Question 4. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?
Ans. (i) Before the eighteenth century there was no British nation. The people of different identities lived in the British Isles and were called ethnic ones.
(ii) The ethnic group comprised of English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. These groups had their own cultural and political traditions.
(iii) But when slowly and steadily the influence and power of English nation grew in, it extended its influence over the other nations of the islands.
(iv) The Act of Union of 1707 between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’.
(v) This gave power to England to impose its influence on Scotland.
(vi) The British parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members.
(vii) This led to the demolition of Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions.
(viii) The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression whenever they attempted to assert their independence.
(ix) The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
(x) The condition of Ireland was not different from Scotland. The country was divided between Catholics and Protestants.
(xi) The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their supremacy over Catholics.
(xii) Catholics revolted but were soon suppressed and Ireland was forcibly included into the United Kingdom in 1801.
(xiii) This amalgamation led to the growth of new, powerful nation ‘British nation’.
(xiv) The symbols of the new Britain like the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English language were actively promoted.
(xv) In the light of the above, we can say that the history of nationalism in Britain was completely unlike that of the rest of Europe.

Question 5. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?
Ans. (i) The Balkans consisted of regions of modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro and their inhabitants were broadly known as Slavs.
(ii) When the Ottoman Empire collapsed, it initiated nationalism in the Balkans states.
(iii) Soon the feeling of Nationalism spread and the situation became very unstable.
(iv) The Ottoman Empire tried to control the situation by strengthening itself through modernisation and internal reforms but in vain.
(v) Gradually, its European nations got separated and fought for independence and political rights.
(vi) In the race to expand their territories and to impose their supremacy on each other, Slavic nationalities quickly got into severe clashes. As a result, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.
(vii) Matters were further worsened because the Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry.
(viii) During this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military might.
(ix) These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan problem unfolded. Each power—Russia, Germany, England, Austria, Hungary was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area. This led to a series of wars in the region and finally, the first world war in 1914.

MORE QUESTIONS SOLVED

I. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Choose the correct option:

1. What was the Napoleonic Code usually known as?
(a) The Napoleonic Code of 1808
(b) The Civil Code of 1809
(c) The Civil Code of 1804
(d) Johann Gottfried Harder

2. Who was called ‘Bismarck of Italy’?
(a) Mazzini
(b) Garibaldi
(c) Cavour
(d) Johann Gottfried Herder

3. In the Frankfurt parliament, a constitution was drafted on which date?
(a) 8 May, 1848
(b) 18 May, 1848
(c) 18 June, 1840
(d) 11 August, 1848

4. In which year was Treaty of Vienna signed?
(a) 1811
(b) 1810
(c) 1815
(d) 1812

5. Unification of Germany took place between which period?
(a) 1860 to 1871
(b) 1870 to 1871
(c) 1856 to 1871
(d) 1866 to 1871

6. What was the significance of ‘Broken Chains’?
(a) Being freed
(b) Heroism
(c) Readiness to fight
(d) Willingness to make peace

7. What did Das Volk stand for?
(a) Democracy
(b) Factory workers
(c) Common people
(d) Slum dwellers

8. What does La patrie mean?
(a) The citizen
(b) The motherland
(c) The fatherland
(d) The country

9. What did Germania symbolise?
(a) French nation
(b) German nation
(c) British nation
(d) None of the above

10. Who was Frederic Sorrien?
(a) A French philosopher
(b) A French leader
(c) A French artist
(d) A French cartoonist

11. What were the large landowners of Prussia known as?
(a) Kulaks
(b) Pykars
(c) Mahantas
(d) Junkers

12. Name the artist who painted the image of Germania.
(a) Frederic Sorrien
(b) Philip Veit
(c) Ernst Renan
(d) None of the above

13. What does the German oak stand for?
(a) Heroism
(b) Potriotism
(c) Liberalism
(d) Socialism

14. Who described Mazzini as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’?
(a) Ernest Renan
(b) Louis Philippe
(c) Napoleon Bonaparte
(d) Metternich

15. The weavers of Silesia led a revolt in 1845 against whom?
(a) Wealthy people
(b) Contractors
(c) Social workers
(d) Farmers

16. Young Italy, a secret society was formed by
(a) Mazzini
(b) Metternich
(c) Wilhelm Wolff
(d) Bismarck

II. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Question 1. What was the major change that occurred in the political and constitutional scenario due to French Revolution in Europe?
Ans. The major change that occurred in the political and constitutional scenario due to the French Revolution in Europe was the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens.

Question 2. What did the French revolutionaries aim for?
Ans. The French revolutionaries aimed for:
(i) Creating a sense of collective responsibility.
(ii) Establishing republic.
(iii) Equal rights for all.

Question 3. What was the significance of the treaty of Constantinople in Greek history?
Ans. The treaty of Constantinople recognised Greece as an independent nation.

Question 4. Name the group of countries that collectively defeated Napoleon.
Ans. Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria.

Question 5. What did the conservatives want?
Ans. The conservatives wanted to preserve the monarchy and the church.

Question 6. What does the term ‘absolutist’ refer to?
Ans. The term ‘absolutist’ refers to the following points:
(i) A government or a system of rule that has no restraints on power exercised.
(ii) A form of monarchical government that was centralised.
(iii) A form of government that is repressive.

Question 7. What is the national anthem of Britain?
Ans. The national anthem of Britain is God Save Our Noble King.

Question 8. What was Zollverein?
Ans. Zollverein was customs union formed in 1834 at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German sates.

Question 9. What do you know about young Italy?
Ans. Young Italy was a secret society, formed by Giuseppe Mazzini to establish a unitary Italian Republic.

Question 10. What did the German sword stand for?
Ans. The German sword for readiness to fight.

Question 11. Name the countries which participated in the Vienna congress of 1815.
Ans. Britain, France and Russia.

Question 12. What did the symbol of olive branch around the sword mean?
Ans. The symbol of olive branch around the sword meant willingness to make peace.

Question 13. Who was described as the ‘most dangerous enemy to our social order’ and by whom?
Ans. Mazzini was described as the ‘most dangerous enemy to our social order’ by Metternich.

Question 14. Who hosted the congress of Vienna?
Ans. Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich hosted the congress of Vienna.

Question 15. Why were female allegories invented by the French artists?
Ans. Female allegories were invented by the French artists in the 19th Century to represent the nation.

Question 16. Who was Johann Gottfried Herder? What did he claim?
Ans. Johann Gottfried Herder was a German philosopher. He claimed that true German culture was to be discovered through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances.

Question 17. Who was Ottoman Bismarck?
Ans. Ottoman Bismarck was the true architect of Germany who played an important role in the unification of the country. He is known for his policy of ‘Blood and Iron’.

Question 18. What is a nation state?
Ans. Nation state is the one in which the majority of the citizens come together to develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent.

Question 19. Name the three revolutionaries of Italy who led the unification of the country.
Ans. Giuseppe Mazzini, Count Camillo de Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi.

Question 20. What does a blind folded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales, symbolise?
Ans. It is a symbolism of justice.

Question 21. What did the ideas of La patrie and Le citoyen signify in the French Revolution?
Ans. These ideas symbolised ‘fatherland’ and ‘the citizens’ respectively.

Question 22. What was the main function of the Prussian Zollverein?
Ans. Its main function was to abolish tariff barriers.

Question 23. Who was proclaimed the German Emperor after its unification?
Ans. The Prussian King William I was proclaimed the German Emperor after its unification.

Question 24. What do you know about the Act of Union, 1707?
Ans. It was signed between England and Scotland as a result of which the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ came into being. Now, England could impose its influence Scotland.

III. SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Question 1. Describe the events of French Revolution which had influenced the people belonging to other parts of Europe.
Ans. (i) When the news of the events in France reached the different cities of Europe, students and other members of educated middle-classes began setting up Jacobin clubs.
(ii) Their activities and compaigns prepared the way for the French armies which moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and much of Italy in the 1790s.
(iii) With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad.

Question 2. What role did Giuseppe Garibaldi play in the unification of Italy?
Ans. (i) Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-82) was a famous Italian freedom fighter. He managed a large number of volunteers apart from regular troops.
(ii) In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers.
(iii) He supported Victor Emmanuel II in his efforts to unify the Italian states and in 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.

Question 3. The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe. Explain.
                                Or
Describe in brief the great economic hardships during the 1830s in Europe.
Ans. (i) The first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe.
(ii) In most countries, there were more job seekers than employment. Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
(iii) Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine made goods from England, where industrialisation was more advanced than on the continent.
(iv) In these regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
(v) The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country.

Question 4. Though conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements in 1848, they could not restore the old order. How?
Ans. (i) Monarchs now began to realise that the cycles of revolution and repression would only be ended by granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist revolutionaries.
(ii) Therefore, in the years after 1848, the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce the changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815.
(iii) Thus, serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia.
(iv) The Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.

Question 5. Briefly write a note on the process of German unification. 
Ans. Germany was divided in many states. In 1848, the German confederation and Prussia tried organising themselves into a German state. Prussia took on the leadership. Its chief minister Otto Von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Three wars: Danish War in 1864, Austro-Prussian War in 1866 and Franco-Prussian War in1870-71 were fought which ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification. For unification, Bismarck adopted ‘Blood and Iron’ policy and finally, it took place in 1871. The Prussian king, William I became the German Emperor.

Question 6. What were the Provisions of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815? 
                                 Or
Describe in brief any four features of the Vienna Treaty of 1815.
Ans. The Provisions of Treaty of Vienna of 1815 include:
(i) The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power.
(ii) France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
(iii) A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future.
(iv) Belgium was set up in the north and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south.
(v) Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was given control of northern Italy.
(vi) In the east, Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.
(vii) Thus, monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon were restored and a new conservative order was created in Europe.

Question 7. In the areas conquered in Europe by Napoleon, explain the reactions of the local population to the French rule.
Ans. Regarding the areas conquered in Europe by Napoleon the reactions of the people were mixed.
(i) Initially in many places like Holland and Switzerland as well as in certain cities like Brussels, Milan, Warsaw etc, the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of liberty.
(ii) But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility as it became clear to the people that the new administrative arrangement did not go hand in hand with the political freedom.
(iii) Increased taxation, censorship, forced consumption into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe. All seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes.

Question 8. Enumerate any three features of the conservative regimes set up in Europe following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815?
Ans. (i) The conservatives emphasised the importance of tradition’s customs and established institutions like the monarchy, the church, the social hierarchies, property and the family.
(ii) The power of the Bourbon dynasty was restored.
(iii) Steps were taken to prevent French expansion and creation of new states.
(iv) Autocratic regimes came into power. Descent of any type from any group was not tolerated. The ideas associated with French Revolution were censored.

Question 9. Describe the impact of ‘The Revolution of the Liberals’ in 1848 in Europe.
Ans. The word ‘liberal’ is derived from the Latin ‘liber’ that means ‘free’. Liberalism means a political system or tendency opposed to centralisation and absolutism. It emphasises on absolute and unrestrained freedom of thought, religion, conscience, creed, speech, press, and politics. Liberals believed that government is necessary to protect individuals from being harmed by others, not to pose a threat to liberty.
In nineteenth century a series of republican revolts started against European monarchies. It began in Sicily and spread over to France, the German and Italian states, and the Austrian Empire. This was the time when the liberals became active. Their significant role in political and economic fields changed the outlook of European countries.
In the economic field
(i) Liberals in the 19th century urged the end of state interference in the economic life of society.
(ii) They fought for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
(iii) In 1834, a customs union or zolverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states.
(iv) The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from thirty to two.
(v) The construction of a network of railways stirred economic growth and economic nationalism which eventually strengthened nationalism.

In the political field
(i) Primary aim of liberals was to establish freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.
(ii) It believed that government should be formed with the consent of people.
(iii) It was against autocracy and clerical privileges and favoured a constitution and representative government through parliament.
(iv) During that time property-owning men only had right to vote and get elected.
(v) The Napoleonic Code also preferred limited suffrage and reduced women’s role also.
(vi) Women were considered as the subject to the authority of fathers and husbands.
(vii) This led to the rise of movement by women and non-propertied men demanding equal political rights.

Question 10. Who were the Grimm Brothers and how did they contribute to the rise of nationalism in Europe?
                            Or
How did the Grimm Brothers contribute to the Nation building of Germany?
Ans. (i) The Grimm Brothers—Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm—extensively contributed to the growth of nationalism in Europe.
(ii) They collected several folk tales that expressed pure and authentic German spirit.
(iii) They became quite popular among the masses. Both the brothers also became active in liberal politics, especially the movement for freedom of the press.
(iv) They were against French domination and considered it as a threat to German culture and tried to uproot it through their sincere efforts.
(v) They considered their projects of collecting folktales as part of the wider effort to oppose French domination and create a German national identity.

Question 11. What did Metternick mean to say when he remarked, ‘When France sneeze, the rest of Europe catches cold’?
Ans. (i) The revolutionary spirit spread all over Europe only after the French Revolution took place in 1789. The ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity gained popularity among people all over Europe.
(ii) Educated people especially got attracted to these ideas.
(iii) The political upheaval in France that took place in July 1830 sparked revolutions in places like Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
(iv) In this way we see that France was one of the most important countries of Europe. It spread awareness among the people of Europe.
(v) It set values and standards for the entire continent. Other countries of the continent just followed what France did.

Question 12. The Habsburg Empire was a patchwork of many different regions and peoples. Elucidate this statement. 
Ans. (i) The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria—Hungary included the Alpine regions—the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland—as well as Bohemia, where the aristocracy was pre-dominantly German-speaking.
(ii) The Empire also included the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.
(iii) In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of dialects. In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish.
Besides these dominant groups, there also lived within the boundaries of the empire, a mass of subject peasant peoples—Bohemians and Slovaks to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south and Roumans to the east in Transylvania.

Question 13. Mention any three measures adopted by the French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity among the French People.
Ans. The first clear cut expression of nationalism came in France with the French Revolution. To make the Revolution a success it was very important to instill a sense of unity in every citizen. To achieve it, various measures and practices were followed:
(i) A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
(ii) The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
(iii) The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasised the nation of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
(iv) New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
(v) A centralised administrative system practising uniform laws for all citizens within its territory was set up.
(vi) Internal custom duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
(vii) Regional languages were discouraged and French was adopted as the common language of the nation.

IV. LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Question 1. Describe the process of unification of Germany.
Ans. The process of unification of Germany:
(i) Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament.
(ii) This liberal initiative to nation-building was, however, repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners called Junkers of Prussia. From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification.
(iii) Otto von Bismarck, the chief minister of Prussia, was the architect of the German unification. He did this with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
(iv) Three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark and France—ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification.
(v) In January 1871, the Prussian King, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.

Question 2. Describe the evolution and execution of the process of Italian unification.
                        Or
Briefly trace the process of the unification of Italy.
Ans. Process of Italian unification:
(i) Like Germany, Italy too had a long history of political fragmentation.
(ii) Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multinational Habsburg Empire.
(iii) During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house.
(iv) The unification process was led by three revolutionaries—Guiseppe Mazzini, Count Camillo de Cavour, and Guiseppe Garibaldi.
(v) Guiseppe Mazzini during the 1830s sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic.
(vi) He organised a new political society called Young Italy.
(vii) The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848 meant that the responsibility now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war.
(viii) Count de Cavour now led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia- Piedmont became successful in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
(ix) Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Guiseppe Garibaldi joined the fray.
(x) In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the kingdom of the two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers.
(xi) In 1861, the process of the unification of Italy was completed and Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of the united Italy.

Question 3. Give a brief description of the revolt led by the Silesian weavers in 1845.
Ans. (i) In 1845 the Silesian weavers revolted against contractors who supplied them raw material and gave them orders for finished textiles but drastically reduced their payments.
(ii) Dissatisfied and resented weavers emerged from their homes on 4 June and marched in pairs up to the mansion of their contractor demanding higher wages.
(iii) When the contractor showed reluctance, a group of them forced their way into the house, smashed its elegant window panes, furniture, porcelain, etc.
(iv) Another group broke into the store house and plundered it of supplies of cloth which they tore to shreds.
(v) The contractor fled with his family to a neighbouring village which ultimately refused to shelter such a person. He returned 24 hours later having requisitioned the army. In the exchange that followed, eleven weavers were shot.

Question 4. “Napoleon had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient.” Support the statement.
                         Or
Explain any three features of Napoleon code. 
                         Or
Explain any four provisions of the Napoleon civil code, 1804.
                         Or
Explain the revolutionary principles incorporated by Napoleon in the administration of France during his regime.
Ans. Though Napoleon was a dictator and was against democracy but he took certain measures to smoothly and proficiently run the administrative system.
(i) Napoleon reformed the French legal system because the old feudal and royal laws were very confusing and conflicting to the people.
(ii) The Napoleonic Code of 1804 was a major step in establishing the rule of law. This Code was exported to the regions under French control.
(iii) In countries like the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy and Germany feudalism was abolished and peasants were freed from serfdom and manorial dues.
(iv) All privileges based on birth were taken away. The equality before the law was established and the right to property was secured.
(v) Transport and communication systems were also paid attention and were improved.
(vi) Low class people like peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen were given more freedom.
(vii) Uniform laws were adopted for all. Be it a businessman and a small-scale producer of goods—all began to realise that uniform laws, stadardised weights and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.

Question 5. What did the concept of liberal nationalism politically emphasise during the 19th century Europe?
                         Or
Explain liberalism in political and economic fields prevailing in Europe in the 19th century.
Ans. The word ‘liberal’ is derived from the Latin ‘liber’ that means ‘free’. Liberalism means a political system or tendency opposed to centralisation and absolutism. It emphasises on absolute and unrestrained freedom of thought, religion, conscience, creed, speech, press, and politics. Liberals believed that government is necessary to protect individuals from being harmed by others, not to pose a threat to liberty.
In nineteenth century a series of republican revolts started against European monarchies. It began in Sicily and spread over to France, the German and Italian states, and the Austrian Empire. This was the time when the liberals became active. Their significant role in political and economic fields changed the outlook of European countries.
In the economic field
(i) Liberals in the 19th century urged the end of state interference in the economic life of society.
(ii) They fought for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
(iii) In 1834, a customs union or zolverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states.
(iv) The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from thirty to two.
(v) The construction of a network of railways stirred economic growth and economic nationalism which eventually strengthened nationalism.

In the political field
(i) Primary aim of liberals was to establish freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.
(ii) It believed that government should be formed with the consent of people.
(iii) It was against autocracy and clerical privileges and favoured a constitution and representative government through parliament.
(iv) During that time property-owning men only had right to vote and get elected.
(v) The Napoleonic Code also preferred limited suffrage and reduced women’s role also.
(vi) Women were considered as the subject to the authority of fathers and husbands.
(vii) This led to the rise of movement by women and non-propertied men demanding equal political rights.

Question 6. “The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area of Balkans”. Justify.
                         Or
Why was Balkans after 1871 the most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe? Explain four reasons. 
                         Or
“The Balkan issue was one of the major factors responsible for The First World War.” Explain by giving examples. 
                         Or
What is meant by Balkan? Why did it turn into perennial sources of tension and proved the battlefield of the First World War?
Ans. (i) The Balkans consisted of regions of modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro and their inhabitants were broadly known as Slavs.
(ii) When the Ottoman Empire collapsed, it initiated nationalism in the Balkans states.
(iii) Soon the feeling of Nationalism spread and the situation became very unstable.
(iv) The Ottoman Empire tried to control the situation by strengthening itself through modernisation and internal reforms but in vain.
(v) Gradually, its European nations got separated and fought for independence and political rights.
(vi) In the race to expand their territories and to impose their supremacy on each other, Slavic nationalities quickly got into severe clashes. As a result, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.
(vii) Matters were further worsened because the Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry.
(viii) During this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military might.
(ix) These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan problem unfolded. Each power—Russia, Germany, England, Austria, Hungary was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area. This led to a series of wars in the region and finally, the first world war in 1914.

Question 7. Explain the role of languages in developing the nationalist sentiments in Europe.
Ans. Poland had been partitioned at the end of the 18th century by ‘The Great Powers, Russia, Prussia and Austria. Even though Poland no longer existed as an
independent country but national feelings were kept alive through the language.
(i) The emphasis on language was made not just to recover an ancient national spirit but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterate.
(ii) After the Russian occupation of Poland, Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere.
(iii) Many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance.
(iv) Polish was used for church gathering and all religious instructions.
(v) The use of Polish thus came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.

Question 8. Give a brief account of political fragmentation of Italy. 
Ans. (i) Like Germany, Italy too had a long history of political fragmentation.
(ii) Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multinational, Habsburg Empire.
(iii) During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house.
(iv) The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the southern regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain.
(v) Even the Italian language had not acquired one common form, and it still had many regional and local variations.

Question 9. “The 1830s were years of great economic hardships in Europe”. Support the statement with four examples. 
Ans.  (i) The first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe.
(ii) In most countries, there were more job seekers than employment. Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
(iii) Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine made goods from England, where industrialisation was more advanced than on the continent.
(iv) In these regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
(v) The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country.

Question 10. Giuseppe Mazzimi and the Chief Minister Cavour have played a major role in unification of Italy. Justify the statement.
Ans. (i) Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-82) was a famous Italian freedom fighter. He managed a large number of volunteers apart from regular troops.
(ii) In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers.
(iii) He supported Victor Emmanuel II in his efforts to unify the Italian states and in 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.

Process of Italian unification:
(i) Like Germany, Italy too had a long history of political fragmentation.
(ii) Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multinational Habsburg Empire.
(iii) During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house.
(iv) The unification process was led by three revolutionaries—Guiseppe Mazzini, Count Camillo de Cavour, and Guiseppe Garibaldi.
(v) Guiseppe Mazzini during the 1830s sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic.
(vi) He organised a new political society called Young Italy.
(vii) The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848 meant that the responsibility now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war.
(viii) Count de Cavour now led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia- Piedmont became successful in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
(ix) Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Guiseppe Garibaldi joined the fray.
(x) In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the kingdom of the two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers.
(xi) In 1861, the process of the unification of Italy was completed and Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of the united Italy.

V. SOURCE-BASED QUESTIONS

Question 1. Read the extract (Source B) taken from NCERT textbook, page 10 and answer
the questions that follow:

Economists began to think in terms of the national economy. They talked of how the nation could develop and what economic measures could help forge this nation together. Friedrich List, Professor of Economics at the University of Tubingen in Germany, wrote in 1934: ‘The aim of the zollverein is to bind the Germans economically into a nation. It will strengthen the nation materially as much by protecting its interest externally as by stimulating its internal productivity. It ought to awaken and raise national sentiment through a fusion of individual and provincial interests. The German people have realised that a free economic system is the only means to engender national feeling.’

(i) What was the view of the German economists?
(ii) Who was Friedrich List? How did he explain the Zollverein?
Ans. (i) The German economists thought in terms of national economy. They were concerned about how the nation could develop and what economic measures could forge their nation together.
(ii) Friedrich List was a Professor of Economics at the University of Tübingen in Germany. He explained that the Zollverein aimed at binding the Germans economically into a nation. He viewed that it would strengthen the nation materially as much by protecting its interest externally as by stimulating its internal productivity.

VI. PICTURE-BASED QUESTIONS

Question 1. Recognise the picture below (see NCERT Textbook page 23) and answer the following questions:

(i) Whose painting is it? Who painted it and when?
(ii) What does it signify?
Ans. (i) It is the painting of Germania. Philip Veit painted it in 1848.
(ii) Germania is the symbolic personification of ‘Liberty’ and ‘Reason’. She becomes the symbol of the German nation.

VII. VALUE BASED QUESTIONS

Question 1. The French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens. The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny. Which values would you associate with this revolution?
Ans. (i) The French Revolution created a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. The ideas of la patrie (the motherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasised the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a Constitution.
(ii) The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
(iii) A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.
(iv) Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
(v) Regional dialects were discouraged and French became the common language of the entire nation.
In nutshell, we can associate the following values with the French Revolution:
(i) Nationalism (ii) Equality (iii) Fraternity (iv) National integration (v) Solidarity.

Question 2. Give any three values which can be reflected from the term ‘liberalism’.
Ans. The three values that can be reflected from the term ‘liberalism’ are:
(i) Freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.
(ii) Concept of government by consent.
(iii) Abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.

Question 3. Which values are associated with the following:
(i) Broken chains
(ii) Crown of oak leaves
(iii) Sword
(iv) Olive branch around the sword
(v) Rays of the rising sun.
Ans. (i) Broken chains—Being freed
(ii) Crown of oak leaves—Heroism
(iii) Sword—Readiness to fight
(iv) Olive branch around the sword—Willingness to make peace
(v) Rays of the rising sun—Beginning of a new era.

Question 4. Johann Gottfried Herder, the German philosopher, claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation was popularised. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the project of nation building.
Now say which values were associated with the folk culture?
Ans. (i) It could recover an ancient national spirit.
(ii) It could carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterate.
(iii) It could successfully develop nationalist sentiments.